Tuesday, September 29, 2015

Regions which were influenced by Buddhist elements in Nusantara

History - Regions which were influenced by Buddhist elements in Nusantara - Based on the discovery of a bronze Buddha statue at Sempaga South Sulawesi, it is estimated that Buddhism developed in Nusantara earlier them Hinduism.

Vieved from the shape, the statue at Sempaga was the same in style as the statue made in Amarawati, India. Statues like these were commonly made between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD. Scientists assumed that the Buddha statue was a trading article or an offering for a Buddhist sacred place.

In addition to the statue at Sempaga, similar statues were also found in Jember (East Java) and Bukit Siguntang (South Sumatera). The findings show the quality of life and level of culture of Indonesia people at that time and also the relation to Indian culture.

Based on the findings of Buddha statues. It was assumed that the regions in Indonesia which were influenced by Buddhist elements were as follow :
  1. Sempaga, South Sulawesi
  2. Jember, East Java.
  3. Bukit Siguntang, South Sumatera.
  4. Kota Bangun, East Kalimantan
  5. Malay Kingdom
  6. Sriwijaya Kingdom
  7. Mataram Kingdom
  8. Singasari Kingdom
  9. Majapahit Kingdom

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Monday, September 28, 2015

Map of the route of entrance and spread of Hindu Buddhist religion and culture in Indonesia

History - The people of Nusantara had accepted new cultures from India. However, they did not abandon the culture and traditions they had for hundreds of years. They did not completely absorb the influences of Hindu-Buddhis cultures because. Nusantara people had local genius, that is the ability of a society to screen and process incoming foreign cultures to be adapted to the local cultures and traditions.

Here ate ten elements of foreign cultures adopted by Nusantara people, as indicated by Dr. J.L.A. Brandes.
  1. Ability tocultivate ricefields
  2. Ability in navigation
  3. Knowing the basic principles of puppet shows
  4. Ability in the arts of gamelan orchestra
  5. Skills in batik making
  6. Producing metal goods
  7. Using the metricx system
  8. Using coins as a means of exchange
  9. Understanding astronomy
  10. Development of well-structured society

Before Hunduism-Buddhism came to Nusantara, our ancestors had believed in the existence of supreme power outside themselves. The believed that when one died only his/her body was destroyed, but the spirit kept alive.

The spirit lived in a sacred place. Our ancestors then made contacts with such spirits, resulting in a custom to burn incense, have ritual meals and give offerings. Besides, they believed that there was supernatural power residing in certain things.

Then they made certain objects sacred, such as weapons, rings, bracelets, big trees and large stones. Such beliefes are known as animism and dynamism. Animism is belief in the spirits of ancestors, whereas dynamism is bilief in objects having supernatural power a magic power.

Buddhist culture and religion were estimated to have influenced Nusantara between tha 2nd and 5 th centuries whereas the effect of Hinduism started in the beginning of the 5th century. The following are scientists' opinions about the people who brought Hinduism to Nusantara.

1. The Brahmana hypothesis
The Brahmana hypothesis says that it was the brahmanas who played the role in propagating Hinduism in Indonesia. The brahmanas were invited by rulers of Nusantara to crown kings, lead religions ceremonies, and teach science. The supporter of this hypothesis was J.C. Van Leur.

2. The kshatrya hypothesis
The Kshatrya hypothesis says that Hindu culture and religions came into Indonesia because of the role of the kshatrya who were tired of the wars in their country. So they migrated to Nusantara and spread Hindu culture and religion. One of the supporters of this hypothesis was C.C. Berg.

3. The vaisya hypothesis
The vaisya hypothesis says taht it was the vaisyay (merchants) who played the role in spreading Hindu culture and religion in Nusantara. One of the supporters of this hypothesis was N.J. Krom.

4. The backflow theory
The backflow theory says that it was the people in Nusantara themselves who spread Hindu religion and culture. They were those who had studied in India, and upon returning to Indonesia they propagated the culture and religion. The scientist who proposed this opinion was F.D.K. Bosch.

Map of the route of entrance and spread of Hindu Buddhist religion and culture in Indonesia

Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion were brought to Nusantara via sea and land routes.
1. Sea route
They went with groups of merchants ship that often sailed to South Asia and East Asia. The route of the Hinduism-Budhism propagators was as follows:

India - Myanmar - Thailand - Malay Peninsula - Nusantara - Cambodia - Vietnam - China - Korea - Japan.

Some of them even went to Nusantara directly when the westerly monsoon wind was blowing.

2. Land route
Some of the propagators of Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion by land route went along with the caravans by taking the silk road from India to Tibet and went to northward to China. The routewas as follows : India - Tibet - China - Korea - Japan.

Besides, some of them also took this reoute : North India - Bangladesh - Myanmar - Thailand - Malay Peninsula - Nusantara.


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Sunday, September 27, 2015

Relationship between Indonesia and centers of Hinduism Buddhism in Asia

History - Relationship between Indonesia and centers of Hinduism Buddhism in Asia - In India and China large countries which high civilization. Since the beginning of Christianity period, the two countries had developed close relationship through economic cooperation which was conducted by land and sea routes.

When the two nations conducted trade cooperation by sea route, they had to pass Nusantara. Because of the strategic location, the people of Nusantara were then involved in international trade and navigation. Of all the countries that established relationship with Nusantara, India was the first country that greatly influenced the pattern of life of the people with Hinduism and Buddhism.

Indian people came to Nusantara in large numbers, then they built residential areas. Along with merchants, there were also monks coming to Nusantara. Both Hindu and Buddhist monks actively propagated their religions in Nusantara. As a result, several kingdoms in Nusantara later on invited monks to conduct official royal ceremonies.

The relation between Nusantara and India was also known from the information in Jataka and Ramayana books. The Jataka book container stories of the life of Buddha that mentioned Suwarnabhumi as country which was difficult to reach.

Suwarnabhumi means a country of gold, and Sumatra was also known as a country of gold. Therefore, it was stated that Indian people had established contacts with Sumatra in Indonesia. The book of Ramayana mentioned Javadvipa. It was told that the troops of monkey that were assigned to find Shinta in eastern countries had examined Javadvipa which was decorated with seven kingdoms.

The island was an island of gold and silver. The book also mentioned Svarnadvipa which menas siland of gold. The description indicated that there was relation between India and Nusantara and Indian influence had also been present especially in Java and Sumatra.

Later on, there were many people from Nusantara who wantaed to go to India to deepen their religious knowledge. Generally, they were interested in learning holy literature and religious arts. The travelers from Nusantara (especially young men) learned architectur and sculpture. Knowledge about techniques of building holy places and sculpture was written in "Silpa Sastra" book.

More and more people from Nusantara went to India to study. This encouraged two Sriwijaya kings to build a dormitory for Indonesian students in India. The kings of Sriwijaya asked for help from Indian kings to build a vihara.

As a result, a vihara for Nusantara students was built in Nalanda (850 AD) and another in Nagatnam (1030 AD). The religious facilities gave positive effects. They made Nusantara students study harder and more diligently in India. No wonder, they brought deep religious knowledge when they came back to Nusantara. They proceseed the Indian culture they had learned in such a way that resulted in a combination of two cultures.

Contacts between Nusantara and China was estimated to have developed in the 5th and 6th centuries. Some of the evidence was the travel of two Buddhist priests. Fa Hien and Gunawarman. In approximately 413 AD, Fa  Hien traveled from Srilanka to Ye-po-ti (Java) and returned to China by land.

In the same year, Gunawarman set off from She-po (Java) to China. On the voyage, the captain of the ship frist planned to stop by in a small kingdom. However, because the wind was favourable, they decided to sail directly to China.

Another piece of evidence told that in 449, Emperor Wen Ti of China sent a messenger to She-po (Java), and he also sent a ship to pick up Gunawarman in She-po. Based on the pieces of evidence, it can be concluded that at that time a direct voyage from Nusantara to China and vice-versa was already common.

Voyages to China were not merely voyages but also meant international maritime trade relations. News from Chi Dynasty (479 - 502 AD) explained that there was silk trade between the country and merchants coming by ships. (Kunlun was the term used to refer to people from the southern seas)

IN addition, there was news stating that in 490 AD there were messenger from Ho-lo-tan coming to She-po carrying clothing materials from India and Ghandara. The messenger from Ho-lo-tan carried a letter containing a request to the Emperor of China to protect Ho-lo-tan from the neighbouring countries.

It also requested Chinese officials to treat Ho-lo-tan ships properly and not to pirate or wreck them. The request from Ho-lo-tan king Indicated that there was good navigation relation between the two countries.

The trade relations with India and China had placed Nusantara international trade and navigation community in the past. Trade relation with India had brought about extensive changes in the life of Indonesian people, for instance in state administration, social system, architecture and literature, and the effects of the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism.


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Development of Buddhism in Shoutheast Asia

History - Development of Buddhism in Shoutheast Asia - Geographically, mainland Southeast Asia consists of countries such as Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Indo China, and Malaysia. Southeast Asian archipelago includes Singapura, Indonesia, and Philippines. These area received a lot of influence of Indian religions and culture.

Buddhism in Thailand
In Thailand, the kingdoms which developed Therayada Buddism (Hinayana Buddism) betweeen the 13th and 15th centuries were Sukothai and Ayuthia. The two great kingdoms inherited hundreds of 'wats' (temple) or pagodas located in Thonburi (Bangkok). The largest temple is Phra Keo Wat in which there is a statue of Buddha made of emerald.

Buddhism in Myanmar
People in Myanmar started to receive Buddhism teachings when a monk named Buddha Gosha from Srilanka came to the country in 403 AD.

Buddhism got more followers during the Pagan empireunder Emperor Anwrahta (1044 - 1077 AD. The king of Pagan once required some monks from Mon ethnicity to profess Therevada Buddhism. Thousand Pagodas were built in that time. The largest and most famous pagoda was Shwe Dagon which was built in 1059 AD.

Buddhism in Cambodia and Vietnam
Buddhism was received warmly by all levels of people in Cambodia during the reign of Jayawarman VII (1811 - 1219 AD). An important intherirance of Jayawarman VII government is Angkor Thom. It was reparted by I-tsing that the Vietnamese people who lived in Annam and Tonkin regions already professed Buddhism.

Between 968 and 1009 AD, the Dinh Dynasty founded a formal religious organization which combined Taosim and Buddhism. The second king tried to include classical transcripts of Mahayana Buddhism from China and encouraged his people to prefess Buddhism.

Buddhism in Indonesia
Buddhism in Indonesia fourished in Sriwijaya Kingdom during the reign of Balaputradewa. In the 9th century, Sriwijaya was one of the centers of Buddhism propagation.


Other references please read : www.buddhanet.net

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Saturday, September 26, 2015

Development of Buddhism in East Asia

History - Development of Buddhism in East Asia - Geographically, the region which are included in East Asia are China and Japan. In this region, the influence of Hinduism was not as great as the influence of Buddhism. This was because the philosophy of life of the Chinese and Japanese is similar to Buddhism.

Buddhism in China

Buddhism came to China in the middle of the 1 st century AD when China was ruled by Emperor Ming-Ti (58-76 AD). In the 6th century AD, Buddhism developed even better because it was protected by the government of Emperor Liang. Besides, under the region of Tang Dynasty (518-907 AD), many Buddhist travelers went to India.

In 845 AD, a sad incident happened to Buddist people. They were tortured by the followers of Taoism and Kunfu-tse. The Buddhist monks were forced to abandon Buddhism. Because of that, Buddhism never became people's religion in China, only the monks were required to obey Buddist rules.

The were two schools of Buddhism that developed in China, they were Ch'an School and Amida School. Ch'an was meditative by developing Madhyamika metaphysics that was combined with Prajnaparamita and Yogacara teachings.

The three teachings were adapted to the condition of China. The world Ch'an means meditation, which is the same in meaning as the Sanskrit word dyana. Ch'an was founded by Budhidharma in 527 AD. The three teachings say that Buddha cannot be obtained from a statue or a book because Buddha exist in people's hearts.

Buddhism can be achieved outside the book whereas the book is used to guide people towrd Buddhism. Accordingy, the school stresses on meditation as a way of obtaining direct enlightenment.

In 650 AD, the Amida School appeared and it concentrated on worshipping Amithabha (o-mi-to-fo). Kuan-Yin, a goddes adored by ancient people, was closely associated with worshipping of Amithabha. Kuan-Yin was regarded as Bodhisattva Buddha. The praising of Devi Kuan Yin was conducted to ask for help in time of hardship or to ask for a baby.

Buddhism in Japan

Buddhism came to Japan from China via Korea. Geographically, Korea is close to Japan, so Chinese culture came into Japan through this country.

In 552 AD, the king of Korea sent and envoy to Japan. The envoy brought a gift of Buddha statue made of gold and several Buddhist manuscripts. Besides, some Buddhist priests were also sent to teach the Japanese the religion coming from India. The propagation of Buddhism in Japan was protected by Prince Shotoku Taishi (600 AD). He was a very faithful Buddhist.

Prince Shotoku sent many messengers to China in order to learn Chinese culture. It was during the life of Prince Shotoku that Buddhism flourished and was very influential in Japan. Prince Shotoku was even unwilling to rule by force.

He advised his people to behave well and be faithful to their religious duties. Prince Shotoku died in 612 AD but Buddhism kept developing and stayed alongside Shintoism. Many Japanese aristocrats professed Buddhism, but most of the people kept professing Shintoism.

Later on, in the 8th century AD, many pagodas, temples and Buddha statues appeared especially in the area of Nara. In line with the development of Buddhism, science and arts also developed in Japan.

Chinese arts became models of Japanese arts. Chinese literature also had a lot of influence on Japanese literature. Due to the close relationship between Japan and China a shool of thought developed in Japan which tried to change the structure of Japanese government modelling on the Chinese system

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Development of Buddhism in South Asia

History - Development of Buddhism in South Asia - In the century BC, a kingdom called Magadha was founded in North India, with Pataliputra its capital. The greates king was Ashoka who was well-known as a cruel king. The prison he built for people who opposed him was called Ashoka Hell.

However, after losing a war against Kalinga kingdom in South India, he changed his attitude. The terrible was took a very large number of deaths, so Ashoka was deeply moved and promised to himself that he would not fight another war.

His cruelty and despotism were paid off by choosing Buddhism as his religion and life guidance. He also declared Buddhism as tha state religion and principle of government. He managed to unite the whole India during his reign. He also built not less than 48.000 stupas, the most famous of which was located in Sanchi, central India.

King Ashoka did not only develop Buddhism in his own contry. He also sent messengers to other countries, such as Greece, Syria, and Egypt. Yet the attempt to spread Buddhism westward was not successful.

On the contrary, the spread of Buddhism in Srilanka which was led by his two sons and a number of Buddhist monks under Mahinda was quite successful. They succeded in persuading King Tissa to profess Buddhism and a lot of his people followed him.

Then Tissa built a center of Buddhism in Anuradhapura. In addittion, he built a Buddist monastery named Tuparama in Kandy. In Tuparama monastery, a tooth of Buddha was kept in a small box decorated with jewels.

Buddhism also developed in Tibet, a snowy region on the foot of the Himalaya mountain range. The Buddhism that developed in Tibet underwent a lot of changes, so it became a sect that was quite different from the original Buddhism.

The Buddhist leader in Tibet was called Lama. The title Dalai was given by Mongolian princes to honour the holy man. Dalai Lama does not only act as a spiritual leader but also a leader of Tibetan people. This spiritual leader of Tibet lives in Potala monastery, the world's largest monastery in Lhasa. Buddhist people believe that Dalai Lama is the reincarnation of Buddha.


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Friday, September 25, 2015

Development of Hinduism Buddhism in Asia

History - Development of Hinduism Buddhism in Asia - Hinduism first appeared in north India, then it developed and spread farther north, among others to Nepal. The influence of Hinduism in Nepal was so strong that itcould attract a lot of followers, reaching 90% of the whole population. Until now Nepal is the only Hindu kingdom in the world.

Hinduism also spread to central India and south India, for example to Amarawati and Tamiralipti. From these two regions, Hinduism spread to Srilanka, Southern China, and some kingdoms in Southeast Asia, Hinduism  developed faster, for instance in kingdoms of Funan, Lin-yi, Fyu, Mon Dwarawati, Shen-La and Khmer, Kutai and Tarumanegara.

In Cambodia, there is a buildingwhich is the largest Hindu heritage in Southeast Asia, even in the world. The building is Angkor Wat which was built by Khmer kingdom during the reign of Suryawarman II (1113 - 1150).

The development of Hinduism was delayed when Buddhism appeared. The decrease of Hindhu followers was due to the greediness of the Brahmanas at tht time. In addition, poor people did not like heir position in he caste system, so many of them converted to Buddhism.

Angkor Wat Temple
Angkor Wat Temple

Howeer the condition changed several centuries later, starting from the reign of Sunga Dynasty. Pusyamitra, did not like Buddhism and supported Hindusim instead. He appointed the Brahmanas royal advisors. The Brahmanas made use of the situation to oppress Buddhism followers, making Buddhism gradually decline in India.

Hinduism shone more brightly in India in the 4th century AD with the emergence of Gupta Dynasty (320 - 656 AD).Gupta kings professed Hinduism and tried to strengthen its influence.

So the habit of sacrificing wild horses done by Sunga Dynasty was revived. Many religions buildings were also built. Hindu science, literature and arts were also revived. Gupta king paid a lot of attention to Hindu literature.

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Early development of Buddhism

History - Early development of Buddhism - Buddhism was first taught by Sidharta, a son of King Suddhodana of Kapilavasta kingdom who was a descendant of Sakya people. He was known as Buddha Gautama or Sakyamuni.

At first Buddhism was not a region, it was only a new sect in Hinduism which developed because of a feeling of dislike against the privileges of the Brahmanas. At that time, the Brahmanas had special rights to learn the Veda, master the content of Veda, conduct sacrifice offering ceremonies, and give guidance to reach moksha.

Teh privileges were considered to have made in difficult for common people to reach moksha. As aresult, a practical teaching that could be implemented easily by the people developed, it was Buddhism.

There are four places which are considered sacred by Buddhist people because they are associated with Sidharta. The places are Lumbini Park, Bodhgaya, Benares, and Kusinagara. Lumbini Park is located in Kapilavasta, the birth place of Sidharta (563 BC).

Bodhgaya is the place where Sidharta received the great enlightenment. Benares is the place where Sidharta propagated his teaching for the first time. Kusinaraga is the place where Sidharta died (482 BC).

The timeofhis bireth, his first enlightenment and hs birth was the same, that is during the full moon in May. The three events are celebrated by Buddhist people as Vesak.

Early development of Buddhism


Life of Buddhistpeople

The buddhistsociety was formed after the Buddha taught his great experience to a number of people. His first sermon was given at the deer park of Isipathana in Sarnath, Benares. He got his first four followers in that place.

The preaching that was given by the Buddha and his students from place to place attracted many people. Some of his followers followed his life as monks and they were called Biksu (male monk) and Biksuni (female monk). They formed a community called Sangha. Besides, there were also followers who maintained their jobs and daily activities. They were called Ummah.

Buddhism does not recognize a caste system. The monks and ummah are both called children of Buddha's. They support each other in implementing the teachings of Buddha which are called Dharma.

The ummah are responsible for meeting the physical needs of the monks such as food, clothing, and home. On the other hand, the monks are responsible for meeting the spiritual needs of the ummah by giving them guidance and examples of life that accord with the teaching of Buddha.

The monks have a special duty to keep the purity of Buddha teachings and teach them to all people. For that purpose, they live in poverty, meditate and keep learning. Some of theme live as monks until death and some become monks for a certain period only.

Essence of Buddhist teaching

Buddhist life is guided by the Tripitaka book. Tripitaka means "three baskets" because the teachings were written on palm leaves which were then kept in baskets. The book is written in Pali language, a daily language of the people. hat is why the book can be read by people of all levels.

The teachings of Buddha are summarized as Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path. The teachings are bsed on thexperience of Sidharta Gautama, starting from his sorrow in seeing the hardship o people outside the palce until his ourney to search for the meaning of life.

The Four Noble Truths (Catur Aryasatyani) in Buddhism are as follows :
1. In people's life, suffering is greater than happiness.
2. Suffering exists because of the desire to live.
3. Suffering can only be eliminated by the efforts of humans themselves.
4. The way to stop suffering is by taking the Noble Eightfold Path (Astaida) that comprises right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right moral effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

So the teachings of Buddhism are not far different from the teachings of Hinduism. But Buddhist teachings have some new elements, for instance the society. Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are called Triratna which means three pearls. One who wants to profess Buddhism is required to pronounce tridharma, or three duties as follows.
1. I search for protection from Buddha.
2. I search for protection from Dharma.
3. I search for protection from Sangha.

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Development of Hindhu Buddhist religion and culture in Sout Asia

History - Development of society and culture during Hindu-Buddhist period - Hindu-Bddhist infulenze had been present in Indonesia before the foundation of the first Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Indonesia, such as Kutai Kingdom in East Kalimantan and Ho-ling in Central Java. The government development in the kingdoms in Nusantara was also influenced by Hinduism-Buddhism, but local rulers had appeared before Hinduism-Buddhism entered Indonesia.

Why were local rulers in Nusantara (Indonesia) influenced by Hinduism-Buddhism? Who played the role to spread Hinduism-Buddhism in Nusantara. The answer is are follows. The ancestors of Indonesian people had existed and took control in certain parts of Nusantara, whereas Hindu-Buddhist people were a group that played an important role in international community, for example in trade, science, social life, and culture.

To let you know more about the influence and role of Hinduism-Buddhism in people's life in Nusantara. Chapter 2 will describe the development of society, culture and government in Hinduism-Buddhism period in Indonesia.

Development of Hindhu Buddhist religion and culture in Sout Asia


Early development of Hinduism

Hinduism came from India. Therefore, to learn its development, we need to study the historical development of India in terms of the people and cultural development from time to time. Based on the age of Vedas, expert concluded that Hinduism had storied to grow and develop since approximately 6.000 years BC. As one of the oldest religions, Hinduism then spread to different parts of the world, including Southeast Asia.

1. Indian People
The native people of India were Dravidians. They lived in the Dekkan plateau and the fertile land along the River Sindhu. Their life was still quite simple. In approximately 1500 BC, the Aryans settled in India.

They originated from Central Asia and spread to Iran (Persia), Mesopotamia, and also Europe. The Aryans who entered India were part of those who had came to Iran. They entered India in two phases and two different places. First, they entered Punjab, an area intersected by five rivers.

Their arrival was resisted by the Dravidians who had settled in the areas earlier. The Aryans succeeded in beating the Dravidians because they were more modern and stronger. In the second phase, Aryans came into India in the valleys of two rivers, the Ganges and Yamuna, which were known as Doab region.

Their coming was not resisted by the native people, they even mixed with them through marriages. These people were the ancestors of today's Indians.

The Aryans developed their culture in the two regions. It was stated that the Aryans were the ones who received the Veda revelations The revelations were not received atat once but through a long period of time and in different places.

The persons who received revelations were called Maha Resi. The revelations were received aurally, so Veda revelations were also called Sruti (sru-aural). The period in which Veda revelations were received was called Veda period. Veda teaching were then propagated all over the world.

Veda books contain praises to gods. Belief in gods (pantheon) was abtained from mediations. Accordingly, there was belief in Agni (god of fire), Bayu (god of the wind), Surya (god of the sun), Chandra (god of the moon), Maruta (god of storm), Baruna (god of the sky), Parjana (god of rain), Indra (god of battle), usa (god of dawn), and others.

None of the gods they praised is considered highest. Only sometimes certain gods are praised more frequently than others, for example Agni. Agni is considered extraordinary because fire is always needed in every home. Besides, fire is also a requirement for praising gods in additions to other offerings.

The system of bilief which worships many gods (polytheism) has a special group in the society that specializes in performing religious ceremonies. This group is made up of brahmanas or priests. The Aryans believed that these people were the ones who could prevent gods' anger and bring blessings to the followers of the religion. The belief in brahmanas was called Brahmanism which was the embryo of Hinduism.

2. People's life
To maintain authority over the people. Aryans tried to keep the purity of their race. This means they prohibited cross-marriage with the Dravidians. For that purpose the Aryans apllied the caste system among the people.

In the caste system, people were divided into several strata or castes, from the highest to the lowest. The caste of someone determined his/hes rights and responsibilities. in the society.

In the beginning people were only divided into three castes. Brahmanas (spiritual leaders and scientists), Kshatrya (government officials, employees, and soldiers), and Vaisya (farmers and merchants). Then another caste was formed, the Sudras (craftsmen, smiths and fishermen).

Initially the caste system was not rigid. People were still able to change castes if they changed professions. However, as the society developed into a more complex structure, the caste system became more rigid. Intercaste shifts were made impossible.

In such a condition, the fift caste was developed, the Pariah or Pancamas which means the outcast or excluded people. This caste included people who did dirty jobs so they were regarded as contemptible and therefore had no rights in the society.

3. Essence of Hindu Teachings
According to Hinduism, life in this world is hard (samsara) because of the bad conducts performed in the previous life (karma). Then men are reincarnated and given another chance to improve themselves, so they might be reborn in a lower caste or even as animals.

However, one who has reached perfectness can obtain moksha or liberation from samsara. People who have reached moksha are not reincarnated, instead they live eternally in nirvana (heaven). Hinduism is pessimistic in nature because life is seen as hardship or misery and not as something enjoyable.


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Thursday, September 24, 2015

Pre historic peoples of Indonesia

History - Pre historic peoples of Indonesia - Because of the migration of people from mainland Asia to Indonesia, the Indonesian Archipelgo was already inhabited by several ethnic groups in pre-historic time.

Melanesian people/Papua Melanesoids who belonged to Negroid Race had the following characteristics : dark skin, strong build, curly hair, wide mouth and pointed nose. The descendants of this ethnic group are still present, such as Sakai/Siak people in Riau and Papua Melanesoid people who inhabit Papua Island and Melanesia island.

Old Malay/Proto Malay people who belonged to Malayan Mangoloid Race had the following characteristics : brown skin, straight hair, slim and tall build, medium mouth and nose. The descendants of this ethnic group include Toraja people (South Sulawesi), Sasak people (Lombok), Dayak people (Central Kalimantan), Nias people (west coast of Sumatera), Batak people (North Sumatera), and Kubu people (South Sumatera).

Young Malay/Deutro Malay people who also belonged to Malayan Mongoloid Race had the same characteristics as Old Malay people. Thesepeople developed to form ethnic groups of Javanese, Balinese, Bugis and Makasar people in Sulawesi and some other ethnic groups.

The diagram below shows pre-historic ethnic groups in Indonesia :

The diagram below shows pre-historic ethnic groups in Indonesia

Summary from pre-historic time article

1. Pre-historic time began when men first appeared on earth in the beginning of Quaternary period or Diluvium (Pleistocene approximately 3 million years BC.

2. Division of pre-historic time archeologically :
a. Stone Age
- Paleolithic
- Mesolithic
- Neolithic
b. Metal Age
c. Bronze + Iron Age

Read more please visit article : Periodization of Pre historic Time Based on Archeological Heritages

3. Geological division of Pre-Hitoric Time
a. Archaean / oldest age
b. Palecozoic / primary age or early life age
c. Mesozoic / secondary age or middle life age
d. Neozoic / new life age
- Tertiary / third age
- Quaternary / fourth age : Diluvium and Alluvium

Read more please visit article : Geological Periodization of Pre historic Time

4. People's life in pre-historic time is divided into three periods, namely :
a. Hunting and food collecting period
b. Cropping period
c. Craftsmanship period

Read more please visit article : Periodization of Pre history Time based on Peoples Life Characteristics

5. Kinds of ancient men in Indonesia
a. Meganthropus
b. Pithecanthropus/Homo Erectus
c. Homo Sapiens

Read more please visit article : Pre historic people in Indonesia

6. Kinds of pre-historic ethnic groups in Indonesia
a. Papua Melanosoid (distribution : Riau, East Indonesia island, Papua).
b. Proto Malay / Old Malay (distribution : Kalimantan/Dayak people, Sulawesi/Toraja people, Nias/Nias people, Lombok/Sasak people, Sumatera/Kubu people).
c. Deutro Malay/Young Malay (distribution : Sumatera, Java, Bali, Madura, Sulawesi).

Glossary

  1. Alluvium : period happening approximately 40.000 - 25.000 years ago (Holocene period)
  2. Amphibian : organism can live in water and on land.
  3. Archaean : oldest period in earth periodization, assumed to last approximately 2.500 million years.
  4. Deutro Malay : Young Malay, Malayan Mongoloid race, similar to Old Malay, so the two have the same characteristics. These people developed into ethnic groups of Aceh, Minangkabau (West Sumatera), Java, Bali, Bugis and Makasar in Sulawesi, etc.)
  5. Diluvium : ice age happening approximately 600.000 years ago.
  6. Geology : science that studies the structure and layers of earth crust.
  7. Homo sapiens : intelligent being.
  8. Meganthropus Paleojavanicus : large creature from java.
  9. Mesozoic : middle life age, lasted about 140 million years (Secondary age).
  10. Neozoic : new life age happening approximately 65-60 million years ago.
  11. Paleozoic : early lifr age, lasted approximately 340 million years. It is also called the primary age.
  12. Sahul Shelf :land uniting the eastern region of Indonesia (Papu) with Australia.
  13. Sunda Shelf : land uniting the western part of Indonesia with Asia.
  14. Pithecanthropus Erectus : ape man that can walk unpright, product of reconstruction by Eugene Dubuois.
  15. Proto Malay : old Malay, Malayan Mongoloid race with characteristics such as : brown skin, straight hair, slim-tall build, medium mouth and nose. Included in the descendants of this people are Toraja people (South Sulawesi), Sasak people (Lombok), Dayak people (Central Kalimantan), Nias people (West coast of Sumatera), Batak people (North Sumatera), and people (South Sumatera).
  16. Ice age : period happening around 600.000 years ago when ice covered approximately 2/3 of the earth surface.
  17. Glacial period : period in which sea water lowered because the seas at north and south poles froze and ice covered 2/3 of earth's surface, while shallow seas like the Java Sea and Arafuru Sea dried out.
  18. Interglacial period : period in which ice melted and sea water surface went up again.
  19. Quaternary age : the fourth age, happened approximately 1.000.000 - 600.000 years ago. It was assumed to be the beginning of human life.
  20. Primary age : period when life started for the first time.
  21. Reptile period : period in which giant reptiles lived on earth.
  22. Tertiary age : third age in which mammals developed fast.

Next article : Development of Hindhu Buddhist religion and culture in Sout Asia

May be "Pre historic peoples of Indonesia" useful for history lovers.
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Migration of peoples to Indonesia

History - Before discussing the migration of peoples to Indonesia, you had better have a look a figure which shows the route of distribution of square axes and oval exes (Neolothic culture) in Indonesia.

From the figure yo know that the remains of Neolithic culture in the form of square axe and oval were not distributed in Indonesia automatically, but there were people who actively distributed the culture.

The people who distributed the culture were those who migrated from mainland Asia to Indonesia Islands, even to the island in the Pasific.

Route of Neolothic culture spread in Indonesia
Route of Neolothic culture spread in Indonesia

You probably want to know where those people came from. For that purpose, plase study the map below.

Map of people's migration
Map of people's migration

The people who emigrated to Indonesia came from mainland Asia, precisely from North Yunan, that moved south into Rear India (Vietnam/Indochina) and moved on to Indonesia.

They were Melanesian people who were also called Papua Melanesoids that belonged to the race of Melanesoid/Negroid.

They were the first immigrants to Indonesia. Malay people who belonged to the family of Austronesians were included in Malayan Mongoloids. The emigrated to Indonesia in two waves :

1. The first wave took place in 2000 BC, spread from mainland Asia to Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Philippines and Formosa, even as far as Pasific silands and Madagaskar. These people were called Proto Malay. They came to Indonesia via two routes, east and west routes, and they brought the Neolithic (New Stone Age) culture.

2. The second wave happened approximately 500 BC and the people were called Deutro Malay. They came into Indonesia, bringing the metal (bronze) culture.

Learn about the culture period metals please read the article : Periodization of Pre historic Time Based on Archeological Heritages

May be useful to readers of history
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BIOGRAFI ADNAN BUYUNG NASUTION



biografi adnan buyung nasution


sejarahpopulerdunia.blogspot.com - Beberapa hari yang lalu dunia hukum indonesia kehilangan sosok besar dan salah satu berpengaruh di Indonesia.Diantara pembaca pasti sudah mengenal dan mengetahui siapa beliau.Ya beliau adalah adnan buyung nasution seorang pengacara dan praktisi hukum yang luar biasa sepak terjangnya.Lahir pada tanggal 20 Juli 1934 di Jakarta dengan nama Adnan Bahrum Nasution . Panggilan "Buyung" sendiri didapat dari panggilan kerabat dan teman-temanya.


Sang ayah merupakan sosok yang bisa dibilang memberikan banyak pengaruh pada Buyung kecil. Rachmat Nasution adalah seorang pejuang gerilya dan reformasi. Dia juga merupakan pendiri kantor berita Antara dan harian Kedaulatan Rakyat. Selain itu, dia juga merintis The Time of Indonesia. Berkat keaktifan sang ayah dalam politik, ketika SMP Buyung mengikuti Mobilisasi pelajar (mopel). Dalam karirnya di organisasi tersebut, Buyung ikut berdemonstrasi terhadap pendirian sekolah NICA di Yogyakarta. 


Selepas SMA, Buyung terdaftar sebagai mahasiswa Teknik Sipil Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB). Namun, satu tahun kemudian, BUyung pindah ke Fakultas Gabung Hukum, Ekonomi, dan Sosial Politik di Universitas Gajah Mada. Tidak lama kemudian, Buyung berpindah ke Fakultas Hukum dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Kemasyarakatan di Universitas Indonesia. Di tiga universitas tersebut, Buyung aktif dalam kegiatan organisasi mahasiswa.


Buyung dikenal sebagai sosok yang tangguh. Ketika Buyung berusia 12 tahun, Buyung hidup sendiri dengan adik semata wayangnya, Samsi Nasution, berdagang barang loakan di Pasar Kranggan, Yogyakarta. Di tempat itu pula, ibu Buyung yang bernama Ramlah Dougur berjualan es cendol. Sementara ayahnya, R. Rachmat Nasution, bergerilya melawan Belanda pada tahun 1947 hingga 1948.
Ketika bersekolah di SMA Negeri 1 Jakarta, Buyung menjabat sebagai Ketua Cabang Ikatan Pemuda Pelajar Indonesia (IPPI), yang kemudian dia bubarkan karena mengandung unsur PKI.
Setelah lulus dari UI, Buyung meneruskan kuliah dan bekerja sebagai jaksa di Kejaksaan Negeri Istimewa Jakarta. Selain itu, Buyung juga tetap aktif dalam kegiatan politik di Indonesia. Buyung tercatat sebagai pendiri dan Ketua Gerakan Pelaksana Ampera. Ketika terjadi peristiwa Gestapu, Buyung tercatat sebagai anggota Komando Aksi penggayangan Gestapu. Bahka, Buyung sempat mendapatkan skorsing selama satu setengah tahun akibat ikut berdemonstrasi dengan Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Indonesia (KAMI), dan dituduh sebagai anti revolusi.
Setelah itu, Buyung dipindahtugaskan ke Manado. Namun demikian, Buyung ditempatkan di Medan. Hal tersebut membuat Buyung hengkang dan menganggur hingga setahun kemudian. Pada saat yang bersamaan. Buyung mendapatkan panggilan kembali untuk DPR/MPR. Setelah satu tahun menganggur, Buyung kemudian mendirikan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Jakarta dan membuka kantor pengacara (advokat). Kedua lembaga tersebut berjalan dengan baik sehingga sekarang kantor pengacara tersebut merupakan kantor pengacara terbaik di Indonesia.
Sementara itu, YLBHI yang dia dirikan mendapatkan respon yang sama, dan membawahi banyak LBH lainnya, sehingga dikenal sebagai lokomotif demokrasi. Gagasan untuk mendirikan LBH tersebut merupakan refleksi ketika Buyung menjalankan persidangan. Menurut Buyung, para terdakwa selalu pasrah menerima dakwaan, dan Buyung beranggapan mereka butuh pembela. Namun, ide tersebut baru dapat dia realisasikan setelah dia melanjutkan belajar hukum di Universitas Melbourne.
Di sana dia belajar bahwa Lembaga Hukum memiliki pola, model, dan bentuk. Kemudian, dia membagi ide tersebut kepada Kepala Kejaksaan Agung Soeparto. Menurut Agung Soeparto, belum waktunya ide tersebut direalisasikan. Hal tersebut memacu Buyung untuk mendapatkan banyak persetujuan. Kemudian, dia melakukan pendekatan dengan banyak petinggi hukum, seperti Yap Thiam Hien, Lukman Wiryadinata, dan Ali Moertopo. Melalui Ali Moertopo, ide tersebut sampai di telinga Presiden Soeharto.
Tidak berapa lama kemudian, Buyung mendapatkan persetujuan dan dukungan dari pemerintah. Selain presiden, Buyung juga mendapatkan suara dari Ali Sadikin Gubernur Jakarta saat itu. Sehingga, pada 28 Oktober 1970, lahirlah LBH yang diketuai oleh Buyung sendiri. Pada pembukaan LBH tersebut, Buyung mendapatkan 10 skuter dari pemerintah.
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kalo kalian membaca page ini berarti klaian pengen kepo nih kenapa aku buat blog ini. Sebenernya blog ini dibuat untuk menambah wawasan kita terutama dalam bidang sejarah. Di lihat kurangnya situs atau blog yang membahas tentang tema ini padahal sejarah adalah sesuatu yang seru dan menyenangkan juga penuh dengan misteri . Jadi, buat kamu yang pingin nambah ilmu dan pengetahuan silahkan ikuti artikel dari blog ini.


terima kasih


SEJARAH POPULER DUNIA

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Pembabakan zaman Pra aksara

Pembabakan zaman Pra-aksara berdasarkan peninggalan arkeologi - Zaman Pleistosen berakhir 10.000 tahun Sebelum Masehi, kemudian diikuti oleh datangnya zaman aluvium atau zaman holosin yang masih berlangsung hingga sekarang.

Dari zaman ini muncullah nenek moyang manusia sekarang, yaitu spesies homo sapiens atau makhluk cerdas. Zaman Pra aksara dapat dibagi berdasarkan pembagian menurut arkeologi (ilmu yang mempelajari hasil-hasil budaya pada masa lampau berupa benda-benda peninggalan dari kebudayaan manusia itu sendiri).

Atas dasar peninggalan itu zaman Pra aksara dapat dibagi menjadi sebagai berikut :

1. Pembabakan zaman Pra aksara berdasarkan peninggalan arkeologi

a. Zaman Batu
Zaman Batu terjadi sebelum logam dikenal dan alat-alat kebudayaan terutama dibuat dari batu di samping kayu dan tulang. Zaman batu ini dapat dibagi lagi menjadi  3, yaitu : zaman batu tua (Paleolithichum), Zaman batu tengah (Mesolithicum), dan zaman batu baru (Neolithicum). Pembahasan lebih jelasnya sebagai berikut :

1) Zaman batu tua (Paleolithichum)
Zaman batu tua disebut juga Paleolithichum. Mengapa disebut sebagai zaman batu tua? Sebab alat-alat batu buatan manusia masih dikerjakan secara kasar, tidak diasah atau dipoles. Alat-alat hidup tersebut bentuknya juga masih sangat sederhana. Contohnya : kapak genggam.

Apabila dilihat dari sudut mata pencahariannya, periode ini disebut masa berburu dan meramu makanan tingkat sederhana. Pendukung kebudayaan ini adalah homo erectus yang terdiri dari pithecanthropus dan homo erectus.


2) Zaman batu tengah (Mesolithicum)
Pada zaman batu tengah (Mesolithicum), alat-alat batu sebagian sudah dihaluskan, terutama bagian yang dipergunakan. Tembikar juga sudah dikenal pada masa itu. Periode ini juga disebut masa berburu dan meramu makanan tingkat lanjut.


Pendukung kebudayaan ini adalah homo sapiens (manusia sekarang), yaitu ras Austromelanosoide (mayoritas) dan Mongoloide (minoritas). Zaman ini merupakan masa peralihan di mana cara pembuatan alat-alat kehidupan lebih baik dan lebih halus dari zaman batu tua. Contohnya : pebble/kapak Sumatra.

3) Zaman batu baru (Neolithicum)
Alat-alat batu buatan manusia pada zaman batu baru (Neolithicum) sudah diasah atau dipoles sehingga lebih halus dan indah. Disamping itu, tembikar, tenun, dan batik juga sudah dikenal. Periode ini disebut masa bercocok tanam.

Pendukung kebudayaan ini adalah homo sapiens dengan ras Mongoloide (mayoritas) dan ras Austromelanosoide (minoritas). Contoh alat-alat zaman batu baru antara lain : apa persegi dan kapak lonjong.

Dari ketiga zaman batu tersebut ada pula para peneliti sejarah yang membagi zaman batu menjadi empat, silahkan baca di artikel prasejarah : 4 zaman batu

b. Zaman logam
Pada zaman logam, orang sudah dapat membuat alat-alat dari logam, disamping alat-alat dari batu. Orang sudah mengenal teknik melebur logam dan mencetaknya menjadi alat-alat yang diinginkannya.

Teknik pembuatan alat logam ada dua macam, yaitu dengan cetakan batu yang disebut bivalve, dan dengan cetakan tanah liat dan lilin yang disebut acire perdue. Selengkapnya tentang bivalve dan acire perdue silahkan baca di artikel : Teknik cetakan Bivalve dan A Cire Perdue

Periode ini juga disebut masa perundagian. Mengapa disebut masa perundagian? Karena dalam masyarakat timbul golongan undagi yang terampil melakukan pekerjaan tangan.

Zaman logam ini masih dibagi lagi menjadi zaman tembaga, zaman perunggu, dan zaman besi. Pembahasan selengkapnya sebagai berikut:

1) Zaman tembaga
Orang menggunakan tembaga sebagai alat kebudayaan. Alat kebudayaan ini hanya dikenal di beberapa bagian dunia saja. Di Asia Tenggara (termasuk Indonesia), tidak dikenal zaman tembaga.

2) Zaman perunggu
Pada zaman perunggu orang sudah dapat mencampur tembaga dengan logam lain, sehingga diperoleh logam yang lebih keras. Karena hasil temuan yang dominan adalah alat-alat dari perunggu maka disebut zaman perunggu.

3) Zaman besi
Pada zaman besi orang sudah dapat melebur besi dari bijihnya untuk di tuang menjadi alat-alat yang diperlukan. Teknik peleburan besi lebih sulit dari teknik peleburan tembaga maupun perunggu, sebab melebur besi membutuhkan panas yang sangat tinggi, yaitu sekitar 3500 derajat celcius.

Zaman logam di Indonesia didominasi oleh alat-alat dari perunggu, sehingga zaman besi atau logam disebut juga zaman perunggu. Alat-alat besi yang ditemukan pada zaman logam jumlahnya sedikit dan bentuknya seperti alat-alat perunggu, sebab kebanyakan alat-alat dari besi ditemukan pada zaman sejarah.

Perlu ditegaskan, bahwa dengan dimulainya zaman logam bukan berarti berakhirnya zaman batu, karena pada zaman logam pun alat-alat dari batu terus berkembang, bahkan sampai sekarang. Sesungguhnya nama zaman logam hanyalah untuk menyatakan bahwa pada zaman tersebut alat-alat dari logam telah dikenal dan dipergunakan secara dominan.

Perkembangan zaman logam di Indonesia berbeda dengan di Eropa. Karena zaman logam di Eropa mengalami 3 fase/bagian, yaitu : zaman tembaga, zaman, perunggu, dan zaman besi. Sedangkan Indonesia khususnya dan Asia Tenggara umumnya tidak mengalami zaman tembaga, tetapi langsung memasuki zaman perunggu dan besi secara bersamaan.

Antara zaman batu dan zaman logam telah berkembang kebudayaan megalithicum, yaitu kebudayaan yang menggunakan media batu-batu besar sebagai alatnya. Bahkan puncak kebudayaan megalithicum justru pada zaman logam.

2. Pembabakan zaman Pra aksara berdasarkan Geologi

Berdasarkan geologi, zaman pra aksara di bagi menjadi 4, yaitu : zaman tertua (Arkaekum), zaman primer atau zaman hidup tua (Paleozoikum), Zaman sekunder atau zaman hidup pertengahan (Mesozoikum), dan Zaman hidup baru (Neozoikum). Pembahasan selengkapnya mengenai tiga zaman tersebut sebagai berikut:

a. Zaman tertua (Arkaekum)
Zaman tertua atau Arkaekum berlangsung kira-kira 2500 juta tahun, pada saat itu kulit bumi masih panas, sehingga tidak ada kehidupan. Dari penjelasan ini mungkin kit abertanya, lalu kapan muncul kehidupan?

c. Zaman primer atau zaman hidup tua (Paleozoikum)
Zaman primer atau Paleozoikum berlangsung selama 340 juta. Makhluk hidup yang muncul pada zaman ini seperti mikro organisme, ikan. amfibi, reptil, dan binatang ampfibi yang tidak bertulang punggung. Meskipun zaman primer berakhir, namun kehidupan terus berkembang, sehingga memasuki zaman baru.

c. Zaman sekunder atau zaman hidup pertengahan (Mesozoikum
Zaman sekunder atau Mesozoikum berlangsung kira-kira 140 juta tahun. Pada zaman pertengahan ini jenis reptil mencapai tingkat yang terbesar, sehingga zaman ini sering disebut juga dengan zaman reptil.

Setelah berakhirnya zaman sekunder ini, maka muncul kehidupan yang lain yaitu jenis burung dan bintang menyusui yang masih rendah sekali tingkatannya. Sedangkan jenis reptilnya mengalami kepunahan.

d. Zaman hidup baru (Neozoikum)
Zaman hidup baru atau Neozoikum dibedakan lagi menjadi dua, yaitu zaman ketiga (tersier) dan zaman keempat (kuartier), selengkapnya sebagai berikut :

1) Zaman ketiga (Tersier)
Zaman ketiga atau tersier berlangsung sekitar 60 juta tahun. Yang terpenting, pada zaman ini ditandai dengan berkembangnya jenisbinatang menyusui seperti jenis primata, misalnya kera.

2) Zaman keempat (Kuartier)
Zaman keempat atau kuartier ditandai dengan adanya kehidupan manusia sehingga merupakan zaman terpenting. Zaman kuartier dibagi lagi menjadi dua zaman, yaitu zaman Pleistosen dan Holosen.

Zaman Pleistose atau Dilluvum berlangsung rai600.000 tahun yang ditandai dengan adanya manusia purba. Sedangkan zaman Holosen atau Alluvium berlangsung kira-kira 20.000 tahun yang lalu dan terus berkembang sampai dewasa ini.Pada zaman ini ditandai dengan munculnya manusia jenis homo sapiens yang memiliki ciri-ciri seperti manusia sekarang ini.

3. Pembabakan zaman Pra aksara berdasarkan ciri-ciri kehidupan masyarakat

Makhluk manusia adalah makhluk yang hidup berkelompok dan mempunyai organisme yang secara biologis berbeda dan lebih lemah dari jenis binatang. Namun, otak manusia berevolusi paling jauh bila dibandingkan dengan makhluk lainnya.

Kemampuan otak manusia yang berupa proses berpikir menyebabkan manusia dapat memilah-milah tindakan yang dapat menguntungkan kelangsungan hidupnya.

Dalam rangka kelangsungan hidupnya maka manusia merupakan makhluk pembentuk kebudayaan dan manusia juga sebagai pembentuk masyarakat, karena pada hakekatnya manusia tidak dapat hidup sendiri tetapi harus berkelompok.

Kehidupan masyarakat (manusia) pada zaman pra aksara terbagi menjadi 3 periode, yaitu sebagai berikut :
a. Masa berburu dan mengumpulkan makanan
Pada masa berburu dan mengumpulkan makanan, secara fisik manusia masih terbatas usahanya dalam menghadapi kondisi alam. Tingkat berpikir manusia yang masih rendah menyebabkan hidupnya berpindah-pindah tempat dan bergantung kepada alam dengan cara berburu dan mengumpulkan makanan.

b. Masa bercocok tanam
Pada masa bercocok tanam, kemampuan manusia mulai berkembang, sehingga timbul upaya menyiapkan persediaan bahan makanan yang cukup dalam suatu masa tertentu. Dalam upaya tersebut, maka manusia bercocok tanam dan tidak lagi tergantung kepada alam.

c. Masa perundagian
Pada masa perundagian asyraat sudahmengenal teknik-teknik pengolahan logam. Pengolahan logam memerlukan keahlian khusus. Pekerjaan mengolah logam untuk membuat benda-benda tertentu disebut perundagian, sedangkan orang yang ahli mengerjakannya dikenal dengan sebutan undagi.

Referensi lain mengenai zaman ini silahkan baca di artikel sejarah : Pembagian zaman berdasarkan corak kehidupan

Demikian uraian Pembabakan zaman Pra aksara yang cukup panjang, semoga memberikan manfaat bagi kita semua untuk lebih mengenal masa prasejarah.
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Sekilas tentang zaman pra aksara

Perjalanan manusia dalam menempuh kehidupan seperti sekarang tidak terjadi begitu saja dalam waktu yang singkat, namun telah dimulai sejak ribuan tahun yang silam. Keadaan pada waktu itu yang berkelanjutan hingga kini, membentuk manusia yang hidup pada saat ini.

Bagaimana manusia mulai berkomunikasi tanpa menggunakan tulisan? Jawabannya adalah, bahwa komunikasi merupakan salah satu cara untuk berinteraksi. Komunikasi pada masa pra-aksara dilakukan secara lisan dan dengan pemahaman akan tanda-tanda atau gambar-gambar yang sering digunakan untuk berkomunikasi.

Untuk lebih jelasnya, bab ini akan membahas bagaimana manusia mengalami perkembangan pada masa pra-aksara.

Pra-aksara adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk merujuk kepada masa di mana catatan sejarah yang tertulis belum tersedia. Zaman Pra-aksara dapat dikatakan bermula pada saat terbentuknya alam semesta, namun umumnya digunakan untuk mengacu kepada manusia di mana terdapat kehidupan di muka Bumi. Contohnya : dinosaurus biasanya disebut hewan Pra-aksara dan manusia gua disebut manusia Pra-aksara.

Karena tidak terdapat peninggalan catatan tertulis dari zaman Pra-aksara, keterangan mengenai zaman ini diperoleh melalui bidang-bidang seperti paleontologi, astronomi, biologi, geologi, antropologi, dan arkeologi.

Zaman Pra-aksara dimulai sejak adanya manusia yang terjadi pada permulaan zaman kuarter, yaitu pada zaman dilluvium (pleistosen) sekitar 3 juta tahun Sebelum Masehi. Periode Pra-aksara di Indonesia berakhir sekitar abad ke-3 sampai ke-5 Masehi, ketika ditemukan prasasti-prasasti di Kutai dan Tarumanegara.


Zaman Pleistosen ditandai dengan meluasnya lapisan es di kedua kutub bumi (zaman glasial) dan diselingi dengan zaman es kembali mencair (interglasial). Keadaan ini silih berganti selama zaman pleistosen sampai empat kali. Di daerah tropika zaman glasial ini berupa zaman hujan (zaman pluvial) yang diselingi dengan zaman kering (interpluvial).

Pada zaman glasial, permukaan air laut telah menurun dengan drastis, sehingga banyak dasar laut yang kering menjadi daratan. Di Indonesia bagian barat, dasar laut yang mengering disebut Dataran Sunda, sedangkan di Indonesia bagian timur disebut Dataran Sahul.

Dataran Sunda telah menyebabkan kepulauan Indonesia bagian barat menjadi satu dengan Benua Asia, sedangkan Dataran Sahul telah pula menghubungkan kepulauan Indonesia bagian timur dengan Benua Australia.

Itulah sebabnya fauna da flora Indonesia barat mirip dengan fauna dan flora Asia, dan sebaliknya fauna dan flora Indonesia timur mirip dengan Australia. Manusia yang hidup di zaman pleistosen adalah spesies homo erectus yang menjadi pendukung kebudayaan batu tua (Paleolithicum).

Selanjutnya baca artikel Prasejarah : Pembabakan zaman Pra aksara

Baca juga mengenai :

Demikian Sekilas tentang zaman pra aksara, semoga menambah pengetahuan kita mengenai sejarah.
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Pre historic people in Indonesia

History - Pre historic people in Indonesia - In the discussion about pre-historic people, you will study about various species of humans who lived in the period.

Pre-historic human species in Indonesia
People who lived in pre-historic time have now turned to fossils. The human fossils which have been found in Indonesia consist of several kinds. This was first known because of the coming of some European experts who were interested in studying the human fossils in Indonesia.

The first human fossil which was first found originated from Trinil, East Java. It was found by Eugene Dubois, so it attracted other researchers to come to Java to do similirar studies. The next study of human fossil was conducted by GRH Von Koeningswald, Ter Har, and Oppenoorth as well as F. Weidenrech. They managed to discover human fossils at Sangiran and Ngandong, in the valley of River Bengawan Solo.

Based on the finding, Von Koeningswald divided Diluvium/Pleistocene period in Indonesia into 3 layers, lower Pleistocene/Jetis layer, Middle Pleistocene/Trinil layer, and Upper Pleistocene/Ngandong layer.

Studies of human fossils were not only done by European scientists, but also Indonesian scientists, such as Prof. Dr. Sartono, Prof. Dr. Teuku Jacob, Dr. Otto Sudarmadji, and Prof. Dr Soejono.

The studies were conducted at Sangiran and the valley of River Bengawan Solo. Based on the results of the studies, the kinds of ancient humans living in Indonesia could be identified. To learn more about them, please read the folloowing description.

1. Meganthropus

As stated earlier, Von Koeningswald found a human skull at Sangiran Village in 1941. The Skull found included a lower jaw bone and teeth which showed that the human had strong teeth and large molars.

Koeningswald named the finding Meganthropus Paleojavanicus, which means the oldest giant man of java. It was assumed that the fossil lived approximately 2 - 1.5 million years ago and originated from Jetis layer. Compare this Meganthropus with another fossil as discussed below.

2. Pithecanthropus/Homo erectus

The study by Eugene Dubouis in Java, exactly at Trinil, Ngawi in 1890 found jaw bones, then in 1891 he found a skull and in 1892 a left thigh bone. The fossils were then reconstructed by Dubuois and named Pithecanthropus Erectus, which means an ape man that walks upright.

Now the fossil is called Homo Erectus from Java. Homo Erectus is estimated to live approximately 1.5 million - 500.000 years ago and originated from middle Pleistocene or Trinil layer. Now is it clear to you that Homo Erectus was younger than Meganthropus Paleojavanicus?

At first, scientists considered that E. Dubouts' finding was not included in the line of descendant, but after Von Koeningswald found another fossil from Jetis layer/lower.

Pleistocene, all scientists admitted that the fossils found by Von Koeningswald were older than Homo erectus that was found by E. Dubouis. To give you a learer picture of Homo Erectus, please study the reconstructed fossils of Homo Erectus found by Dubouis in figure 1.7.

3. Homo Sapiens

Homo Sapiens is the species of old humans that had a body shape quite similar to the body of today's humans. They already had similar characteristics to present-day humans. Their life was simple and they lived nomadically.

The Homo Sapiens fossils found in Indonesia consisted of fossils found in Ngandong, Blora in Sangiran and in Sambung Macan, Sragen, the valley of River Bengawan Solo between 1931 - 1934. After the fossils were studied by Von Koeningswald and Weidenreich, they were named Homo Sapiens Soloensis (Homo Soloensis).

The human fossil found at Wajak (Tulung Agung) in 1889 by Van Reitschotten was then studied by Eugene Dubouis, and was named Homo Sapiens Wajakensis.

The sites where the two fossils were found belonged to Ngandong layer or Pleistocene layer layer, and the people were assumed to live approximately 100,000 - 500,000 years ago. For information about the finding sites of Indonesian ancient people, study the following map.

Pre historic people in Indonesia
Image by Google Map

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Periodization of Pre history Time based on Peoples Life Characteristics

History - Periodization of Pre history Time based on Peoples Life Characteristics - Human beings are living things that live communally and have organisms which are biologically different from and weaker than those of animals.

Homever, human brain evolves farthest compared with other beings. The ability of human brain to think enables them to sort the actions that can benefit their survival.

In keeping the continuity of their life, humans create cultures and society because basically human beings cannot live alone, but they have to live in groups. People's life in pre-historic time was divided into 3 period :

1. Hunting and food collecting period
In this period, humans were still physically limited in their efforts to cope with natural conditions. The low thinking ability of humans in that time forced them to keep moving from one place to another and depend on nature to live, that is by hunting and collecting food.

2. Cropping period
In this period, the thinking ability of humans had developed, so they made efforts to prepare food stock for a certain period of time. As part of the efforts, people started to grow grops and did not merely depend on nature.

3. Craftsmanship period
People already knew some techniques for processing metal in this period. Metal processing needed a special expertise. The job to process metal to make certain things was called craftsmanship , and the person who was an expert in doing it was called craftsman.

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Wednesday, September 23, 2015

Geological Periodization of Pre historic Time

History - Geological Periodization of Pre historic Time as follows:
1. Archaean/Oldest Age
This age happened about 2500 million years ago, at that time the earth crust was still hot, so there was no life. You may wonder when life on earth started. To know it, please read the next!

2. Paleozoic/Primary Age or Early Life Age
This period lasted 340 million years. The living things that appeared in this period wer microorganisme, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrata reptiles. Look at the illustration on the left for a clearer picture.

Though the primary age ended, life continued to the next age.

3. Mesozoic/Secondary Age or Middle Life Age
This period lasted about 140 million years. In this period, reptiles reached the largest size as seen in figure 1.6, do thid period is often called reptile age. After the secondary age ended, other forms of life appeared, birds and mammals of very low level. The reptiles were extinct.

4. Neozoic/New Life Age
This period is distinguished into 2 as follows:

a. Tertiary/the third age
This era lasted about 60 million years. The most important mark of this period was the development of mammals including primates, such as monkeys.

b. Quaternary/the fourth age
This period marked by the appearance of humanlife so this was the most important period. It is further divided intotwo ages, Pleistocene and Holocene.

Pleistocene/Diluvium period lasted around 600.000 years and was marked by the existence of ancient humans. Holocene/Alluvium period started about 20.000 years ago and is still going on up to now. This period was marked by the appearance of Homo Sapiens with characteristics of today's human beings.

To know more about the geological periodization of pre-historic time, please study the diagram below :
Geological Periodization of Pre historic Time

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Periodization of Pre historic Time Based on Archeological Heritages

History - The pleistocene period ended about 10.000 years BC, then it was followed by the coming of aluvium period or holocene period which continues up to now. In this period, the ancestor of today's human beings appeared - the homo sapiens or intelligent beings.

The pre-historic period can be divided according to archeological division (archeology is the science that studies the cultural products of the past in the form of objects of cultural heritages of human beings in that period). Accordingly, the pre-historic period can be divided as follows.

1. Stone age

This happened before metals were known and cultural tools were mainly made of stone, in addition to wood and bone. The stone age is further divided as follows :

a. Old stone age (Paleolithic)
Old stone age is also called Paleolithic in which stone tools were still roughly made, not sharpened or polished. The life tools were also still simple in shape, for example hand-held axe. Based on the livelihood, this period is called hunting and food collecting period. The supporter of this culture was homo erectus consisting of pithecanthropus and homo erectus.

b. Midde stone age (Mesolithic)
In the middle stone age (Mesolithic), some of thestone tools were already sharpened, especially the blades. Peoplead also know earthenware. This period is as know as advanced hunting ad food colectng perod.

The supporter ofthis clturewas o sapies (today'shumas) cosisg of Austrmelanosoid race (majoriy) ad Mongoloidrace (minority). This was a transitional period in wich life tooswere more iel made hn tools of the old stone age. One example is pebble (Sumatran axe).

c. New stone age (Neolithic)
The stone tools of the new stone age (Neolithic) were already sharpened and polished, so they looked smooth and beautiful. Besides, earthenware, woven material, and batik were already known. This period is also called cropping period.

The supporter of this culture was homo sapiens consisting of Mongoloid race (majority) and Austromelanosoid race (minority). Examples of tools of this period are : square axe and oval axe.

2. Metal age

In the metal, people were already able to make tools of metal, in addition to stone tools. People already knew the technique for smelting metal and mould it into tools they wanted. There were two methods of making metal tools, one was by using a stone mould and this technique was called bivalve, while the other way was by using a clay mould and was and this was called 'acire perdue'.

This period also called craftsmanship period because there appeared a group of people who were experts in making things by hand. The metal age is divided as follows :

a. The copper Age
People used copper as a cultural means. This cultural means was only known in some parts of the world. It was not konows in Southeast Asia (including Indonesia).

b. The Bronze Age
In this time, people were already able to mix copper with other metals to obtain a harder metal. The most dominant discoveries were tools made of bronze, so this period was called the bronze age.

c. The Iron Age
In this period, people were already able to smelt iron ore and cast it to make tools they needed. Smelting iron is more difficult than smelting copper or bronze because it needs a higher temperature, +/- 3500° C.

The metal age in Indonesia was dominated by bronze tools, so the period was also called bronze age. There were only a few iron tools invented in this time and most of them were similar to bronze tools in shape. Most of iron tools were invented in the historic time.

It should be noted however, that although the metal age began, it does not mean the stone age had completely ended because in the metal age stone tools still developed, even now they still do. The term metal age is only used to show that in that period, people started to know and use metal tools.

The development of metal age in Indonesia was different from Europe because the metal age in Europe passed 3 phases, they were the copper age, bronze age, and iron age. In Indonesia and also in Southeast Asia, however, there was no copper age, the area only experienced two ages - the bronze age abd iron age which happened almost at the same time.

In betweeen the stone age and metal age, megalithic culture developed, that is a culture that used large stones as tools, and the peak of the culture even happened in the metal age. That is the description of the periodization of pre-historic period archeologically. To better understand the description, please study the chart below :

Periodization of Pre historic Time Based on Archeological Heritages

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